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ROMAN RULER'S HEAD FOUND IN SEWER
The Seoul Times, South Korea
Oct 18 2005
Life of "Saint Constantine" Who Cristianized Rome
Head statue of The Holy Emperor Constantine
A 1,700-year-old carved marble head of Emperor Constantine has been
found in a sewer in central Rome.
Archaeologists found the 60cm (2ft) head while clearing an ancient
drainage system in the ruins of the Roman Forum.
Eugenio La Rocca, superintendent of Rome's artefacts, described the
head as a rare find and said it was possible it had been used to
clear a blocked sewer.
Constantine, who reigned from 306 to 337, is known for ending
persecution of Christians and founding Constantinople.
Although most of his subjects remained pagans, he is credited with
helping to establish Europe's Christian roots by proclaiming religious
freedom.
The white marble head was confirmed as a portrait of Constantine by
experts who compared it with coins and two other giant heads kept in
Rome's Capitoline Museums.
Probably carved between 312 and 325 AD, when Constantine was at the
height of his power, it may have belonged to a statue of the emperor
in full armour.
"Recovering a portrait of this size and in this state of conservation
in the very heart of the city is really extraordinary," said Mr
La Rocca.
"We have concluded that the head did not fall by accident into the
passage, but was put there on purpose.
"It could have been used as a big piece of stone to divert water from
the drain, or it could have been put there to symbolise the resentment
of a pagan people for their Christian emperor."
The head's unceremonious insertion in the drain may have saved it
from the plundering of the Forum after the fall of the Roman empire
in the 5th Century.
It is expected to go on display in Rome's museums after a brief period
of restoration.
Life of Contantine the Great
'Constantine the Great' 'Saint Constantine' Flavius Valerius
Constantinus (AD ca. 285 - AD 337)
Statue of The Holy Emperor Constantine
Constantine was born in Naissus, Upper Moesia, on 27 February in
roughly AD 285. Another account places the year at about AD 272 or 273.
He was the son of Helena, an inn keeper's daughter, and Constantius
Chlorus. It is unclear if the two were married and so Constantine
may well have been an illegitimate child.
When in Constantius Chlorus in AD 293 was elevated to the rank of
Caesar, Constantine became a member of the court of Diocletian.
Constantine proved an officer of much promise when serving under
Diocletian's Caesar Galerius against the Persians.
He was still with Galerius when Diocletian and Maximian abdicated
in AD 305, finding himself in the precarious situation of a virtual
hostage to Galerius.
In AD 306 though Galerius, now sure of his position as dominant
Augustus (despite Constantius being senior by rank) let Constantine
return to his father to accompany him on a campaign to Britain.
Constantine however was that suspicious of this sudden change of
heart by Galerius, that he took extensive precautions on his journey
to Britain.
When Constantius Chlorus in AD 306 died of illness at Ebucarum (York),
the troops hailed Constantine as the new Augustus.
Galerius refused to accept this proclamation but, faced with
strong support for Constantius' son, he saw himself forced to grant
Constantine the rank of Caesar.
Though when Constantine married Fausta, her father Maximian, now
returned to power in Rome, acknowledged him as Augustus. Hence, when
Maximian and Maxentius later became enemies, Maximian was granted
shelter at Constantine's court.
At the Conference of Carnuntum in AD 308, where all the Caesars and
Augusti met, it was demanded that Constantine give up his title of
Augustus and return to being a Caesar. However, he refused.
"Constantine the Great," The Holy Emperor Constantine
Not long after the famous conference, Constantine was successfully
campaigning against marauding Germans when news reached him that
Maximian, still residing at his court, had turned against him. Had
Maximian been forced abdicate at the Conference of Carnuntum,
then he now was making yet another bid for power, seeking to usurp
Constantine's throne.
Denying Maximian any time to organise his defence, Constantine
immediately marched his legions into Gaul. All Maximian could do
was flee to Massilia. Constantine did not relent and laid siege to
the city. The garrison of Massilia surrendered and Maximian either
committed suicide or was executed (AD 310).
With Galerius dead in AD 311 the main authority amongst the emperors
had been removed, leaving them to struggle for dominance.
In the east Licinius and Maximinus Daia fought for supremacy and in
the west Constantine began a war with Maxentius. In AD 312 Constantine
invaded Italy. Maxentius is believed to have had up to four times as
many troops, though they were inexperinced and undisciplined.
Brushing aside the opposition in battles at Augusta Taurinorum (Turin)
and Verona, Constantine marched on Rome.
Constantine later claimed to have had a vision on the way to Rome,
during the night before battle. In this dream he supposedly saw the
'Chi-Ro', the symbol of Christ, shining above the sun. Seeing this
as a divine sign, it is said that Constantine had his soldiers paint
the symbol on their shields. Following this Constantine went on to
defeat the numerically stronger army of Maxentius at the Battle at
the Milvian Bridge (Oct AD 312).
Constantine's opponent Maxentius, together with thousands of his
soldiers, drowned as the bridge of boats his force was retreating
over collapsed.
Constantine saw this victory as directly related to the vision he
had had the night before.
Henceforth Constantine saw himself as an 'emperor of the Christian
people.' If this made him a Christian is the subject of some debate.
But Constantine, who only had himself baptized on his deathbed, is
generally understood as the first Christian emperor of the Roman world.
With his victory over Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge, Constantine
became the dominant figure in the empire. The senate warmly welcomed
him to Rome and the two remaining emperors, Licinius and Maximinus II
Daia could do little else but agree to his demand that he henceforth
should be the senior Augustus. It was in this senior position that
Constantine ordered Maximinus II Daia to cease his repression of
the Christians.
Though despite this turn toward Christianity, Constantine remained
for some years still very tolerant of the old pagan religions.
Particularly the worship of the sun god was still closely related with
him for some time to come. A fact which can be seen on the carvings
of his triumphal Arch in Rome and on coins minted during his reign.
Then in AD 313 Licinius defeated Maximinus II Daia. This left only
two emperors.
At first both tried to live peacefully aside each other, Constantine
in the west, Licinius in the east. In AD 313 they met at Mediolanum
(Milan), where Licinius even married Constantine's sister Constantia
and restated that Constantine was the senior Augustus. Yet it was made
clear that Licinius would make his own laws in the east, without the
need to consult Constantine. Further it was agreed that Licinius would
return property to the Christian church which had been confiscated
in the eastern provinces.
As time went on Constantine should become ever more involved with the
Christian church. He appeared at first to have very little grasp of
the basic beliefs governing Christian faith. But gradually he must
have become more acquainted with them. So much so that he sought to
resolve theological disputes among the church itself.
In this role he summoned the bishops of the western provinces to
Arelate (Arles) in AD 314, after the so-called Donatist schism had
split the church in Africa. If this willingness to resolve matters
through peaceful debate showed one side of Constantine, then his brutal
enforcement of the decisions reached at such meetings showed the
other. Following the decision of the council of bishops at Arelate,
donatist churches were confiscated and the followers of this branch
of Christianity were brutally repressed. Evidently Constantine was
also capable of persecuting Christians, if they were deemed to be the
'wrong type of Christians.'
Problems with Licinius arose when Constantine appointed his
brother-in-law Bassianus as Caesar for Italy and the Danubian
provinces. If the principle of the tetrarchy, established by
Diocletian, still in theory defined government, then Constantine
as senior Augustus had the right to do this. And yet, Diocletian's
principle's would have demanded that he appointed an independent man
on merit.
But Licinius saw in Bassianus little else than a puppet of
Constantine. If the Italian territories were Constantine's, then
the important Danubian military provinces were under the control of
Licinius. If Bassianus was indeed Constantine's puppet it would have
ment a serious gain of power by Constantine. And so, to prevent his
opponent from yet further increasing his power, Licinius managed to
persuade Bassianus to revolt against Constantine in AD 314 or AD 315.
The rebellion was easily put down, but the involvement of Licinius,
too, was discovered. And this discovery made war inevitable. But
considering the situation responsibility for the war, must lie with
Constantine. It appears that he was simply unwilling to share power
and hence sought to find means by which to bring about a fight.
For a while neither side acted, instead both camps preferred to
prepare for the contest ahead. Then in AD 316 Constantine attacked
with his forces. In July or August at Cibalae in Pannonia he defeated
Licinius larger army, forcing his opponent to retreat.
The next step was taken by Licinius, when he announced Aurelius
Valerius Valens, to be the new emperor of the west. It was an attempt
to undermine Constantine, but it clearly failed to work. Soon after,
another battle followed, at Campus Ardiensis in Thrace. This time
however, neither side gained victory, as the battle proved indecisive.
Once more the two sides reached a treaty (1 March AD 317). Licinius
surrendered all Danubian and Balkan provinces, with the exception of
Thrace, to Constantine. In effect this was little else but confirmation
of the actual balance of power, as Constantine had indeed conquered
these territories and controlled them. Despite his weaker position,
Licinius though still retained complete sovereignty over his remaining
eastern dominions. Also as part of the treaty, Licinius' alternative
western Augustus was put to death.
The final part of this agreement reached at Serdica was the creation
of three new Caesars. Crispus and Constantine II were both sons
of Constantine, and Licinius the Younger was the infant son of the
eastern emperor and his wife Constantia.
For a short while the empire should enjoy peace. But soon the situation
began to deteriorate again. If Constantine acted more and more in
favour of the Christians, then Licinius began to disagree.
>>From AD 320 onwards Licinius began to suppress the Christian church
in his eastern provinces and also began ejecting any Christians from
government posts.
Another problem arose regarding the consulships. These were by now
widely understood as positions in which emperors would groom their
sons as future rulers. Their treaty at Serdica had hence proposed
that appointments should be made by mutual agreement. Licinius
though believed Constantine favoured his own sons when granting
these positions.
And so, in clear defiance of their agreements, Licinius appointed
himself and his two sons consuls for the eastern provinces for the
year AD 322.
With this declaration it was clear that hostilities between the two
sides would soon begin afresh. Both sides began to prepare for the
struggle ahead.
In AD 323 Constantine created yet another Caesar by elevating his
third son Constantius II to this rank.
If the eastern and western halves of the empire were hostile towards
one another, then in AD 323 a reason was soon found to start a new
civil war. Constantine, while campaigning against Gothic invaders,
strayed into Licinius' Thracian territory.
It is well possible he did so on purposely in order to provoke a war.
Be that as it may, Licinius took this as the reason to declare war
in spring AD 324.
But it was once again Constantine who moved to attack first in AD 324
with 120'000 infantry and 10'000 cavalry against Licinius' 150'000
infantry and 15'000 cavalry based at Hadrianopolis. On 3 July AD 324
he severely defeated Licinius' forces at Hadrianopolis and shortly
after his fleet won victories at sea.
Licinius fled across the Bosporus to Asia Minor (Turkey), but
Constantine having brought with him a fleet of two thousand transport
vessels ferried his army across the water and forced the decisive
battle of Chrysopolis where he utterly defeated Licinius (18 September
AD 324).
Licinius was imprisoned and later executed.
Alas Constantine was sole emperor of the entire Roman world.
Soon after his victory in AD 324 he outlawed pagan sacrifices, now
feeling far more at liberty to enforce his new religious policy. The
treasures of pagan temples were confiscated and used to pay for
the construction of new Christian churches. Gladiatorial contests
were outruled and harsh new laws were issued prohibiting sexual
immorality. Jews in particular were forbidden from owning Christian
slaves.
Constantine continued the reorganization of the army, begun by
Diocletian, re-affirming the difference between frontier garrisons
and mobile forces. The mobile forces consisting largely of heavy
cavalry which could quickly move to trouble spots. The presence of
Germans continued to increase during his reign.
The praetorian guard who'd held such influence over the empire for
so long, was finally disbanded. Their place was taken by the mounted
guard, largely consisting of Germans, which had been introduced
under Diocletian.
As a law maker Constantine was terribly severe.
Edicts were passed by which the sons were forced to take up the
professions of their fathers. Not only was this terribly harsh on
such sons who sought a different career. But by making the recruitment
of veteran's sons compulsory, and enforcing it ruthlessly with harsh
penalties, widespread fear and hatred was caused.
Also his taxation reforms created extreme hardship. City dwellers were
obliged to pay a tax in gold or silver, the chrysargyron. This tax was
levied every four years, beating and torture being the consequences
for those to poor to pay. Parents are said to have sold their daughters
into prostitution in order to pay the chrysargyron.
Under Constantine, any girl who ran away with her lover was burned
alive. Any chaperone who should assist in such a matter had molten
lead poured into her mouth. Rapists were burned at the stake.
But also their women victims were punished, if they had been raped
away from home, as they, according to Constantine, should have no
business outside the safety of their own homes.
But Constantine is perhaps most famous for the great city which came
to bear his name - Constantinople.
He came to the conclusion that Rome had ceased to be a practical
capital for the empire from which the emperor could exact effective
control over its frontiers.
For a while he set up court in different places; Treviri (Trier),
Arelate (Arles), Mediolanum (Milan), Ticinum, Sirmium and Serdica
(Sofia). Then he decided on the ancient Greek city of Byzantium. And
on 8 November AD 324 Constantine created his new capital there,
renaming it Constantinopolis (City of Constantine).
He was careful to maintain Rome's ancient privileges, and the new
senate founded in Constantinople was of a lower rank, but he clearly
intended it to be the new center of the Roman world. Measures to
encourage its growth were introduced, most importantly the diversion
of the Egyptian grain supplies, which had traditionally gone to
Rome, to Constantinople. For a Roman-style corn-dole was introduced,
granting every citizen a guaranteed ration of grain.
In AD 325 Constantine once again held a religious council, summoning
the bishops of the east and west to Nicaea. At this council the branch
of the Christian faith known as Arianism was condemned as a heresy
and the only admissible Christian creed of the day (the Nicene Creed)
was precisely defined.
Constantine's reign was that of a hard, utterly determined and ruthless
man. Nowhere did this show more than when in AD 326, on suspicion of
adultery or treason, he had his own eldest son Crispus executed.
One account of the events tells of Constantine's wife Fausta falling
in love with Crispus, who was her stepson, and made an accusation
of him committing adultery only once she had been rejected by him,
or because she simply wanted Crispus out of the way, in order to let
her sons acceed to the throne unhindered. Then again, Constantine had
only a month ago passed a strict law against adultery and might have
felt obliged to act. And so Crispus was executed at Pola in Istria.
Though after this execution Constantine's mother Helena convinced the
emperor of Crispus' innocence and that Fausta's accusation had been
false. Escaping the vengeance of her husband, Fausta killed herself
at Treviri.
A brilliant general, Constantine was a man of boundless energy and
determination, yet vain, receptive to flattery and suffering from a
choleric temper.
Had Constantine defeated all contenders to the Roman throne, the need
to defend the borders against the northern barbarians still remained.
In the autumn of AD 328, accompanied by Constantine II, he campaigned
against the Alemanni on the Rhine. This was followed in late AD 332
by a large campaign against the Goths along the Danube until in AD
336 he had re-conquered much of Dacia, once annexed by Trajan and
abandoned by Aurelian.
In AD 333 Constantine's fourth son Constans was raised to the rank of
Caesar, with in the clear intent to groom him, alongside his brothers,
to jointly inherit the empire. Also Constantine's nephews Flavius
Dalmatius (who may have been raised to Caesar by Constantine in AD
335 !) and Hannibalianus were raised as future emperors.
Evidently they also were intended to be granted their shares of power
at Constantine's death.
How, after his own experience of the tetrarchy, Constantine saw it
possible that all five of these heirs should rule peaceably alongside
each other, is hard to understand.
In old age now, Constantine planned a last great campaign, one which
was intended to conquer Persia. He even intended to have himself
baptized as a Christian on the way to the frontier in the waters
of the river Jordan, just as Jesus had been baptized there by John
the Baptist.
As the ruler of these soon to be conquered territories, Constantine
even placed his nephew Hannibalianus on the throne of Armenia, with
the title of King of Kings, which had been the traditional title
borne by the kings of Persia.
But this scheme was not to come to anything, for in the spring of
AD 337, Constantine fell ill. Realising that he was about to die, he
asked to be baptized. This was performed on his deathbed by Eusebius,
bishop of Nicomedia.
Constantine died on 22 May AD 337 at the imperial villa at Ankyrona.
His body was carried to the Church of the Holy Apostles, his mausoleum.
Had his own wish to be buried in Constantinople caused outrage in Rome,
the Roman senate still decided on his deification. A strange decision
as it elevated him, the first Christian emperor, to the status of an
old pagan deity.
http://theseoultimes.com/ST/?url=/ST/db/re ad.php?idx=2201
The Seoul Times, South Korea
Oct 18 2005
Life of "Saint Constantine" Who Cristianized Rome
Head statue of The Holy Emperor Constantine
A 1,700-year-old carved marble head of Emperor Constantine has been
found in a sewer in central Rome.
Archaeologists found the 60cm (2ft) head while clearing an ancient
drainage system in the ruins of the Roman Forum.
Eugenio La Rocca, superintendent of Rome's artefacts, described the
head as a rare find and said it was possible it had been used to
clear a blocked sewer.
Constantine, who reigned from 306 to 337, is known for ending
persecution of Christians and founding Constantinople.
Although most of his subjects remained pagans, he is credited with
helping to establish Europe's Christian roots by proclaiming religious
freedom.
The white marble head was confirmed as a portrait of Constantine by
experts who compared it with coins and two other giant heads kept in
Rome's Capitoline Museums.
Probably carved between 312 and 325 AD, when Constantine was at the
height of his power, it may have belonged to a statue of the emperor
in full armour.
"Recovering a portrait of this size and in this state of conservation
in the very heart of the city is really extraordinary," said Mr
La Rocca.
"We have concluded that the head did not fall by accident into the
passage, but was put there on purpose.
"It could have been used as a big piece of stone to divert water from
the drain, or it could have been put there to symbolise the resentment
of a pagan people for their Christian emperor."
The head's unceremonious insertion in the drain may have saved it
from the plundering of the Forum after the fall of the Roman empire
in the 5th Century.
It is expected to go on display in Rome's museums after a brief period
of restoration.
Life of Contantine the Great
'Constantine the Great' 'Saint Constantine' Flavius Valerius
Constantinus (AD ca. 285 - AD 337)
Statue of The Holy Emperor Constantine
Constantine was born in Naissus, Upper Moesia, on 27 February in
roughly AD 285. Another account places the year at about AD 272 or 273.
He was the son of Helena, an inn keeper's daughter, and Constantius
Chlorus. It is unclear if the two were married and so Constantine
may well have been an illegitimate child.
When in Constantius Chlorus in AD 293 was elevated to the rank of
Caesar, Constantine became a member of the court of Diocletian.
Constantine proved an officer of much promise when serving under
Diocletian's Caesar Galerius against the Persians.
He was still with Galerius when Diocletian and Maximian abdicated
in AD 305, finding himself in the precarious situation of a virtual
hostage to Galerius.
In AD 306 though Galerius, now sure of his position as dominant
Augustus (despite Constantius being senior by rank) let Constantine
return to his father to accompany him on a campaign to Britain.
Constantine however was that suspicious of this sudden change of
heart by Galerius, that he took extensive precautions on his journey
to Britain.
When Constantius Chlorus in AD 306 died of illness at Ebucarum (York),
the troops hailed Constantine as the new Augustus.
Galerius refused to accept this proclamation but, faced with
strong support for Constantius' son, he saw himself forced to grant
Constantine the rank of Caesar.
Though when Constantine married Fausta, her father Maximian, now
returned to power in Rome, acknowledged him as Augustus. Hence, when
Maximian and Maxentius later became enemies, Maximian was granted
shelter at Constantine's court.
At the Conference of Carnuntum in AD 308, where all the Caesars and
Augusti met, it was demanded that Constantine give up his title of
Augustus and return to being a Caesar. However, he refused.
"Constantine the Great," The Holy Emperor Constantine
Not long after the famous conference, Constantine was successfully
campaigning against marauding Germans when news reached him that
Maximian, still residing at his court, had turned against him. Had
Maximian been forced abdicate at the Conference of Carnuntum,
then he now was making yet another bid for power, seeking to usurp
Constantine's throne.
Denying Maximian any time to organise his defence, Constantine
immediately marched his legions into Gaul. All Maximian could do
was flee to Massilia. Constantine did not relent and laid siege to
the city. The garrison of Massilia surrendered and Maximian either
committed suicide or was executed (AD 310).
With Galerius dead in AD 311 the main authority amongst the emperors
had been removed, leaving them to struggle for dominance.
In the east Licinius and Maximinus Daia fought for supremacy and in
the west Constantine began a war with Maxentius. In AD 312 Constantine
invaded Italy. Maxentius is believed to have had up to four times as
many troops, though they were inexperinced and undisciplined.
Brushing aside the opposition in battles at Augusta Taurinorum (Turin)
and Verona, Constantine marched on Rome.
Constantine later claimed to have had a vision on the way to Rome,
during the night before battle. In this dream he supposedly saw the
'Chi-Ro', the symbol of Christ, shining above the sun. Seeing this
as a divine sign, it is said that Constantine had his soldiers paint
the symbol on their shields. Following this Constantine went on to
defeat the numerically stronger army of Maxentius at the Battle at
the Milvian Bridge (Oct AD 312).
Constantine's opponent Maxentius, together with thousands of his
soldiers, drowned as the bridge of boats his force was retreating
over collapsed.
Constantine saw this victory as directly related to the vision he
had had the night before.
Henceforth Constantine saw himself as an 'emperor of the Christian
people.' If this made him a Christian is the subject of some debate.
But Constantine, who only had himself baptized on his deathbed, is
generally understood as the first Christian emperor of the Roman world.
With his victory over Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge, Constantine
became the dominant figure in the empire. The senate warmly welcomed
him to Rome and the two remaining emperors, Licinius and Maximinus II
Daia could do little else but agree to his demand that he henceforth
should be the senior Augustus. It was in this senior position that
Constantine ordered Maximinus II Daia to cease his repression of
the Christians.
Though despite this turn toward Christianity, Constantine remained
for some years still very tolerant of the old pagan religions.
Particularly the worship of the sun god was still closely related with
him for some time to come. A fact which can be seen on the carvings
of his triumphal Arch in Rome and on coins minted during his reign.
Then in AD 313 Licinius defeated Maximinus II Daia. This left only
two emperors.
At first both tried to live peacefully aside each other, Constantine
in the west, Licinius in the east. In AD 313 they met at Mediolanum
(Milan), where Licinius even married Constantine's sister Constantia
and restated that Constantine was the senior Augustus. Yet it was made
clear that Licinius would make his own laws in the east, without the
need to consult Constantine. Further it was agreed that Licinius would
return property to the Christian church which had been confiscated
in the eastern provinces.
As time went on Constantine should become ever more involved with the
Christian church. He appeared at first to have very little grasp of
the basic beliefs governing Christian faith. But gradually he must
have become more acquainted with them. So much so that he sought to
resolve theological disputes among the church itself.
In this role he summoned the bishops of the western provinces to
Arelate (Arles) in AD 314, after the so-called Donatist schism had
split the church in Africa. If this willingness to resolve matters
through peaceful debate showed one side of Constantine, then his brutal
enforcement of the decisions reached at such meetings showed the
other. Following the decision of the council of bishops at Arelate,
donatist churches were confiscated and the followers of this branch
of Christianity were brutally repressed. Evidently Constantine was
also capable of persecuting Christians, if they were deemed to be the
'wrong type of Christians.'
Problems with Licinius arose when Constantine appointed his
brother-in-law Bassianus as Caesar for Italy and the Danubian
provinces. If the principle of the tetrarchy, established by
Diocletian, still in theory defined government, then Constantine
as senior Augustus had the right to do this. And yet, Diocletian's
principle's would have demanded that he appointed an independent man
on merit.
But Licinius saw in Bassianus little else than a puppet of
Constantine. If the Italian territories were Constantine's, then
the important Danubian military provinces were under the control of
Licinius. If Bassianus was indeed Constantine's puppet it would have
ment a serious gain of power by Constantine. And so, to prevent his
opponent from yet further increasing his power, Licinius managed to
persuade Bassianus to revolt against Constantine in AD 314 or AD 315.
The rebellion was easily put down, but the involvement of Licinius,
too, was discovered. And this discovery made war inevitable. But
considering the situation responsibility for the war, must lie with
Constantine. It appears that he was simply unwilling to share power
and hence sought to find means by which to bring about a fight.
For a while neither side acted, instead both camps preferred to
prepare for the contest ahead. Then in AD 316 Constantine attacked
with his forces. In July or August at Cibalae in Pannonia he defeated
Licinius larger army, forcing his opponent to retreat.
The next step was taken by Licinius, when he announced Aurelius
Valerius Valens, to be the new emperor of the west. It was an attempt
to undermine Constantine, but it clearly failed to work. Soon after,
another battle followed, at Campus Ardiensis in Thrace. This time
however, neither side gained victory, as the battle proved indecisive.
Once more the two sides reached a treaty (1 March AD 317). Licinius
surrendered all Danubian and Balkan provinces, with the exception of
Thrace, to Constantine. In effect this was little else but confirmation
of the actual balance of power, as Constantine had indeed conquered
these territories and controlled them. Despite his weaker position,
Licinius though still retained complete sovereignty over his remaining
eastern dominions. Also as part of the treaty, Licinius' alternative
western Augustus was put to death.
The final part of this agreement reached at Serdica was the creation
of three new Caesars. Crispus and Constantine II were both sons
of Constantine, and Licinius the Younger was the infant son of the
eastern emperor and his wife Constantia.
For a short while the empire should enjoy peace. But soon the situation
began to deteriorate again. If Constantine acted more and more in
favour of the Christians, then Licinius began to disagree.
>>From AD 320 onwards Licinius began to suppress the Christian church
in his eastern provinces and also began ejecting any Christians from
government posts.
Another problem arose regarding the consulships. These were by now
widely understood as positions in which emperors would groom their
sons as future rulers. Their treaty at Serdica had hence proposed
that appointments should be made by mutual agreement. Licinius
though believed Constantine favoured his own sons when granting
these positions.
And so, in clear defiance of their agreements, Licinius appointed
himself and his two sons consuls for the eastern provinces for the
year AD 322.
With this declaration it was clear that hostilities between the two
sides would soon begin afresh. Both sides began to prepare for the
struggle ahead.
In AD 323 Constantine created yet another Caesar by elevating his
third son Constantius II to this rank.
If the eastern and western halves of the empire were hostile towards
one another, then in AD 323 a reason was soon found to start a new
civil war. Constantine, while campaigning against Gothic invaders,
strayed into Licinius' Thracian territory.
It is well possible he did so on purposely in order to provoke a war.
Be that as it may, Licinius took this as the reason to declare war
in spring AD 324.
But it was once again Constantine who moved to attack first in AD 324
with 120'000 infantry and 10'000 cavalry against Licinius' 150'000
infantry and 15'000 cavalry based at Hadrianopolis. On 3 July AD 324
he severely defeated Licinius' forces at Hadrianopolis and shortly
after his fleet won victories at sea.
Licinius fled across the Bosporus to Asia Minor (Turkey), but
Constantine having brought with him a fleet of two thousand transport
vessels ferried his army across the water and forced the decisive
battle of Chrysopolis where he utterly defeated Licinius (18 September
AD 324).
Licinius was imprisoned and later executed.
Alas Constantine was sole emperor of the entire Roman world.
Soon after his victory in AD 324 he outlawed pagan sacrifices, now
feeling far more at liberty to enforce his new religious policy. The
treasures of pagan temples were confiscated and used to pay for
the construction of new Christian churches. Gladiatorial contests
were outruled and harsh new laws were issued prohibiting sexual
immorality. Jews in particular were forbidden from owning Christian
slaves.
Constantine continued the reorganization of the army, begun by
Diocletian, re-affirming the difference between frontier garrisons
and mobile forces. The mobile forces consisting largely of heavy
cavalry which could quickly move to trouble spots. The presence of
Germans continued to increase during his reign.
The praetorian guard who'd held such influence over the empire for
so long, was finally disbanded. Their place was taken by the mounted
guard, largely consisting of Germans, which had been introduced
under Diocletian.
As a law maker Constantine was terribly severe.
Edicts were passed by which the sons were forced to take up the
professions of their fathers. Not only was this terribly harsh on
such sons who sought a different career. But by making the recruitment
of veteran's sons compulsory, and enforcing it ruthlessly with harsh
penalties, widespread fear and hatred was caused.
Also his taxation reforms created extreme hardship. City dwellers were
obliged to pay a tax in gold or silver, the chrysargyron. This tax was
levied every four years, beating and torture being the consequences
for those to poor to pay. Parents are said to have sold their daughters
into prostitution in order to pay the chrysargyron.
Under Constantine, any girl who ran away with her lover was burned
alive. Any chaperone who should assist in such a matter had molten
lead poured into her mouth. Rapists were burned at the stake.
But also their women victims were punished, if they had been raped
away from home, as they, according to Constantine, should have no
business outside the safety of their own homes.
But Constantine is perhaps most famous for the great city which came
to bear his name - Constantinople.
He came to the conclusion that Rome had ceased to be a practical
capital for the empire from which the emperor could exact effective
control over its frontiers.
For a while he set up court in different places; Treviri (Trier),
Arelate (Arles), Mediolanum (Milan), Ticinum, Sirmium and Serdica
(Sofia). Then he decided on the ancient Greek city of Byzantium. And
on 8 November AD 324 Constantine created his new capital there,
renaming it Constantinopolis (City of Constantine).
He was careful to maintain Rome's ancient privileges, and the new
senate founded in Constantinople was of a lower rank, but he clearly
intended it to be the new center of the Roman world. Measures to
encourage its growth were introduced, most importantly the diversion
of the Egyptian grain supplies, which had traditionally gone to
Rome, to Constantinople. For a Roman-style corn-dole was introduced,
granting every citizen a guaranteed ration of grain.
In AD 325 Constantine once again held a religious council, summoning
the bishops of the east and west to Nicaea. At this council the branch
of the Christian faith known as Arianism was condemned as a heresy
and the only admissible Christian creed of the day (the Nicene Creed)
was precisely defined.
Constantine's reign was that of a hard, utterly determined and ruthless
man. Nowhere did this show more than when in AD 326, on suspicion of
adultery or treason, he had his own eldest son Crispus executed.
One account of the events tells of Constantine's wife Fausta falling
in love with Crispus, who was her stepson, and made an accusation
of him committing adultery only once she had been rejected by him,
or because she simply wanted Crispus out of the way, in order to let
her sons acceed to the throne unhindered. Then again, Constantine had
only a month ago passed a strict law against adultery and might have
felt obliged to act. And so Crispus was executed at Pola in Istria.
Though after this execution Constantine's mother Helena convinced the
emperor of Crispus' innocence and that Fausta's accusation had been
false. Escaping the vengeance of her husband, Fausta killed herself
at Treviri.
A brilliant general, Constantine was a man of boundless energy and
determination, yet vain, receptive to flattery and suffering from a
choleric temper.
Had Constantine defeated all contenders to the Roman throne, the need
to defend the borders against the northern barbarians still remained.
In the autumn of AD 328, accompanied by Constantine II, he campaigned
against the Alemanni on the Rhine. This was followed in late AD 332
by a large campaign against the Goths along the Danube until in AD
336 he had re-conquered much of Dacia, once annexed by Trajan and
abandoned by Aurelian.
In AD 333 Constantine's fourth son Constans was raised to the rank of
Caesar, with in the clear intent to groom him, alongside his brothers,
to jointly inherit the empire. Also Constantine's nephews Flavius
Dalmatius (who may have been raised to Caesar by Constantine in AD
335 !) and Hannibalianus were raised as future emperors.
Evidently they also were intended to be granted their shares of power
at Constantine's death.
How, after his own experience of the tetrarchy, Constantine saw it
possible that all five of these heirs should rule peaceably alongside
each other, is hard to understand.
In old age now, Constantine planned a last great campaign, one which
was intended to conquer Persia. He even intended to have himself
baptized as a Christian on the way to the frontier in the waters
of the river Jordan, just as Jesus had been baptized there by John
the Baptist.
As the ruler of these soon to be conquered territories, Constantine
even placed his nephew Hannibalianus on the throne of Armenia, with
the title of King of Kings, which had been the traditional title
borne by the kings of Persia.
But this scheme was not to come to anything, for in the spring of
AD 337, Constantine fell ill. Realising that he was about to die, he
asked to be baptized. This was performed on his deathbed by Eusebius,
bishop of Nicomedia.
Constantine died on 22 May AD 337 at the imperial villa at Ankyrona.
His body was carried to the Church of the Holy Apostles, his mausoleum.
Had his own wish to be buried in Constantinople caused outrage in Rome,
the Roman senate still decided on his deification. A strange decision
as it elevated him, the first Christian emperor, to the status of an
old pagan deity.
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